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followed game animals such as wooly mammoth, musk-ox, bison, horse, bear, caribou, and a variety of lesser animals
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS:
Cool and moist, close to glaciers
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS:
HUMAN ACTIVITIES:
Hunting,
fishing, gathering Link to illustration p. 67 3.16
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
Fluted
spearpoints on spearshafts, knives, scrapers Link to illustrations p. 70
3.17
Caves and rockshelters found in rocky, hilly, mountainous regions
open-air sites
PALEO-INDIAN SITES IN NEW JERSEY:
On some Paleo-Indian sites, archaeologists are able to identify Òhot spots,Ó consisting of artifacts and lithic scatters that can be plotted and used to reveal settlement patterns and activity areas.
a Paleo-Indian workshop site was identified on a dune-like terrace on the Outer Coastal Plain of New Jersey. A fluted point was found on Island Beach State Park, Ocean County. The point was found on the beach between the ocean and the dune ridge that parallels Route 35 (Shore Road). Read a full account of this find in the ASNJ Bulletin. Link to Bulletin No. 50 1995
analysis
of lithic (stone) material using a process called X-ray fluorescence (XRF) was
carried out on a sample of lithic material from two Paleo-Indian sites to
determine where the stone used to make Paleo-Indian tools originated. One site was located adjacent to a dry
tributary of Kettle Creek in the Toms River drainage. This site appeared to be a small campsite with five lithic
concentrations. Food processing
and tool refining may have taken place here.
the second site from which lithic material was analyzed occupies an ancient high terrace above extensive tidal wetlands of Crosswicks Creek and the Delaware River. Artifacts recovered from this site are clearly related to an early occupation and consisted of a Clovis Point and four channel flakes (by-products of Clovis point production) fashioned from jasper. The results of the X-ray fluorescence study showed that the material used to make the points originated from quarry sites (places where the stone material originated) within 200 miles of the site. This analysis also revealed that some of the archaeological specimens could not be positively assigned to any previously identified quarry sites. Read a full account of these finds in the ASNJ Bulletin. Link to Bulletin No. 50 1995
Archaic Period ca. 8000 B.C. - ca. 1000 B.C.
There is no typical Archaic pattern encompassing all of North America, rather there were specialized adjustments to conditions and natural resources within individual environments such as the Desert Archaic of the Great Basin and Southwest, Shell Mound Archaic of the lower Mississippi Valley, Lake Archaic of the Great Lakes Area , Maritime Archaic of Maine and eastern Canada, and the Woodland Archaic of the eastern United States.
in the eastern woodlands, which is the region that New Jersey is part of, archaeologists have divided this long era into four subperiods: Early Archaic (ca. 8000-6000 B.C.), Middle Archaic (ca. 6000-4000 B.C.), Late Archaic (ca. 4000-2000 B.C.), and Terminal Archaic (ca. 2000-1000 B.C.).
it is important to keep in mind that no sharp breaks or radical changes necessarily divide one subperiod from the next. the hunting, fishing, and foraging way of life typical of this period appears to have continued throughout the Archaic, though there were occasional innovations and modifications in tool and weapon technologies and adaptations to changes in the environment.
projectile points were no longer fluted: instead, they were made in a great variety of stemmed, notched, and occasional triangular forms with or without serrated and beveled edges.
Early Archaic ca. 8000 B.C. - ca. 6500 B.C.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS:
Annual temperatures appear to have
increased in warmth and dryness.
ENVIRONMENT:
Freshwater lakes, marshes, and brackish estuaries.
boreal forests comprised mostly of
spruce and pine, some deciduous trees and grasslands.
GEOLOGY:
Ocean waters begin to rise due to melting glaciers.
bogs and ponds common resulting
from ground ice and subterranean ice wedges. these periglacial features are known as thermokarsts,
frost-thaw basins, and pingos.
hundreds of these features are still evident on todayÕs landscape,
although most are now dried out. Link
to illustration p.77 3.24
HUMAN ACTIVITIES:
Lifeways similar to Paleo-Indian: hunting, fishing, and gathering.
specific adaptations to climate and local environment.
people lived in small, highly
mobile bands spread thinly across the landscape.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
Variety of stone projectile points.
changing sizes and configurations
of spearpoints and knives.
implements of domestic and
utilitarian use: scrapers, drills, choppers, hammerstones, and anvilstones
tended to remain much the same. Link
to illustrations p. 94-101 4.4-4.18
TYPES OF EARLY ARCHAIC SITES:
Open air short-term encampments near river valleys elevated places near glacial lakes, thermokarst basins, confluences of streams, and headlands between drainage systems.
rockshelters
EARLY ARCHAIC SITES IN NEW JERSEY
Early Archaic sites are rare, and are represented mostly from stone artifacts found on the surface.
some sites may now be up to 80 miles off the coastline, covered by rising ocean waters.
Middle Archaic ca. 6500 B.C. - 4000 B.C.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS:
Warm and wet
ENVIRONMENT:
Mixed forests of mostly hemlock and oak
pine and hemlock were still evident, particularly in the highlands, but deciduous trees now dominated the landscape and closed in some of the open spaces
the warm, moist climate known as known as the Atlantic episode, helped to sustain plant and animal populations, and by 5000 B.C. natural conditions were very much as we experience them today.
GEOLOGY:
Ocean waters continue to inundate the continental shelf
abandoned campsites were gradually flooded by the rising sea water and their cultural contents were lost to archaeology
HUMAN ACTIVITIES:
Hunting, fishing, gathering
nuts from trees such as walnut and hickory trees gathered in the fall sustained the people throughout the winter, for they kept well and were easily stored in pits and baskets
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
In addition to bifurcated
projectile points, many of which were still in use from the Early Archaic a new
point style called Stanly Stemmed link to illustration p. 104, 105, 107, 108- 4.21-4.29
Stanly/Neville points are
occasionally found with atlatl weights, suggesting that the spears to which
they were once attached were being propelled with the aid of atlatls or
spearthrowers link to illustration p. 126
other innovations such as the making of dugout canoes or rafts were essential for travel on bays and rivers; for traversing lakes and marshland streams in search of birdÕs eggs, turtles, and frogs; for fishing, and for gathering cattails, sedges, and lotus tubers.
beds of marine or freshwater shellfish could be found and exploited more advantageously by canoe, and trade and transportation of families and heavy or bulky items was made much easier.
TYPES OF MIDDLE ARCHAIC SITES:
Open air short-term encampments
near river valleys confluences of streams, and headlands between drainage
systems.
Late Archaic ca. 4000 B.C. Ð 1000 B.C
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS:
Warm and wet to warm and dry, much like the present
ENVIRONMENT:
Mixed oak, hickory, chestnut
generally similar to the present
GEOLOGY:
Geology by the Late Archaic is generally similar to the present
ocean levels have risen and the coastline is closer to the present
HUMAN ACTIVITIES:
Hunting, fishing, intensive gathering, with a greater emphasis on small game, shellfish, nuts, and wild cereal grains
principal settlements were near major rivers that afforded easy dugout canoe transportation
coastal areas, estuaries, freshwater springs, lakes, and the divides between drainage basins were inhabited as well
the primary consideration for settlements is the available source of potable water near swamp edges, ridge tops and overlooks, on kame (a terrace of glacial gravel and sand) terraces, and at the edges of glacial outwash plains
in Central America, maize (corn), beans, squash, and peppers had been domesticated for hundreds of years, but the Archaic peoples in the Northeast were not aware of these cultigens and had not yet begun to practice horticulture, or gardening.
in areas where no single dependable food supply was available throughout the year, the Indians had to schedule their movements to be at predetermined locations when particular plant foods ripened or game animals were available
everybody contributed to the well-being of the community, and there was probably a division of labor. Mothers and small children, the elderly, and the infirm probably remained at the campsite while the men and older boys hunted, and females and children foraged for food and raw materials in marches, fields, streams, at forest edges, and in the forest itself.
women and girls probably did the cooking, skinned the animals, scraped and tanned hides, tailored garments, made baskets and mats, procured firewood and water, tended the children, and did other domestic shores.
men and older boys built shelter, made canoes, did the heavy work around the camp, fished, hunted, and trapped. The making and repairing of tools and weapons was probably an ongoing task.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
Heavy grinding implements provide the means of preparing foods from wild seeds, nuts, berries, and perhaps even dried meat and fish.
the tools were simple enough and required little or no preparation: a large flat-faced cobblestone served as a grinding muller. In most instances, a millingstone and muller were selected from river cobbles or other sources. Link to illustration p. 112 4.31
another set of food-processing
tools that my have been used in Archaic times was the mortar and pestle. A mortar is a large stone with a more
or less hollowed-out depression.
portable mortars made from heavy cobbles and weighing up to 50 pounds or
more have been found on many Late Archaic sites. Link to illustration p. 113, 114 4.33
cooking pots of stone or pottery did not exist in the early part of the Late Archaic, and certainly no in the Early-and Middle Archaic periods. It was possible to cook nuts or seed gruels and other foods in containers made of elm, birch, and other bark.
cooking could also be done in a skin-lined hole in
the ground. in bark containers or
skin-lined depressions, water, fish, meat, and vegetable ingredients were
heated by suing the Òhot rock cookingÓ or Òstone boilingÓ method. This was accomplished with the aid of
fist sized stones heated in a fire.
By means of wooden scoops or Òtweezers,Ó the hot stones were removed
from the fire and inserted into the water, stew, or gruel. Stones thus immersed transmitted their
heat to the surrounding water, and the replacement of cooled potboilers with
freshly heated stones soon caused the food to cook. the thermal
shock resulting from the immersion of very hot stones into cold water
caused some stones to shatter, and a certain amount of ash and grit was thus
sometimes introduced in the food. Link to illustration p.114 4.34
knives were essential for food preparation and for
skinning, butchering, trimming, and paring. Some knives used in Archaic times consisted simply of
unmodified, naturally sharp flakes of stone, or shredders comprised of flakes
with serrated edges. Link to
illustration p. 116 4.37
for reasons as yet unknown, axes, seemingly among the most useful of domestic implements, were quite common in central and southern parts of the region and less abundant in northerly areas.
spears tipped with stone spearpoints and propelled
with spearthrowers or atlatls were the principal hunting weapons of Late
Archaic times. narrow stemmed projectile points are common to the region. Link to illustration p.120, 121, 125, 126 4.43 Ð 4.50, 4.56, 4.57
between 2000 and 1000 B. C.
(Terminal Archaic period) broadspears appear in the archaeological record. Broadspears may be a type of harpoon
point for catching sturgeon and other large fish or they possible served as
specialized knives or cleavers used in the processing or meat, fish, and plant
foods, or other type of specialized tools. Broadspears would have made excellent knives when mounted in
short handles. There is
disagreement between archaeologists over the function broadspears served. Link
to illustration p. 138 4.66, 4.67
scrapers are also common to the
Late Archaic period link to illustration p. 139 4.69
soapstone kettles also make their appearance in the
Late Archaic period. The
heat-transmitting steatite or amphibole talc formed from carving soapstone, was
suspended over a fire and used to cook food. Link to illustration 142, 143 4.74, 4.75, 4.76
pottery also appeared around 2000 B.C. clay used in
the fabrication of these pots is tempered or mixed with large amounts of
steatite, quartz or pulverized crystalline rock. Link to illustration p. 145, 147 4.82, 4.83
TYPES OF LATE ARCHAIC SITES:
peoples of the Late Archaic period lived near large rivers such as the Delaware and other large streams and may have been settling into territories that were somewhat defined, and in which they could claim rights to food resources. In places like the upper Delaware River valley where the resources were abundant and varied, it may have been possible to establish more or less permanent year-round base camps.
other sites, such as the Savich Farm site, are located near the headwaters of streams where fine, loamy sands provided good drainage and where shellfish might be procured. The remains of hearths and refuse pits are commonly found on Late Archaic sites.
Early and Middle Woodland ca. 1000 B.C. - 1000 A.D.
the term ÒWoodlandÓ is not directly
related to woods or forests; it is an archaeological label used for a time of
cultural transformation among Indian groups throughout the Eastern Woodlands
(the geographic regions extending from Manitoba, Minnesota, Iowa, and northern
Missouri eastward across the United States and Canada to the Atlantic
Ocean). For purposes of comparison
and study, archaeologists usually divide this era into Early, Middle, and Late
Woodland periods.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS:
cool and wet
ENVIRONMENT:
vast deciduous forests of mainly oak and chestnut with conifers.
GEOLOGY:
sea level rise continues. The submergence of the land by rising sea levels continues at a rate of about 5 feet per 1000 years.
the Greenhouse Effect seems to be hastening the melting of polar ice and the corresponding deepening of oceans.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES: Early Woodland
continuation of the Archaic way of life with the addition of pottery.
hunting, fishing, intensive gathering, trade.
introduction of tobacco and smoking pipes, wearing of ornaments such as stone gorgets and copper, in addition to an increase in mortuary ceremonialism. link to illustration p. 174 (Fig. 5.30), 175 (Fig. 5.32), 177 (Fig. 5.37).
the practices of garden farming had yet to be known or accepted by people in the Middle Atlantic and Northeast regions.
Indian traders from the Ohio-Mississipppi River valleys, upper New York State, and perhaps other regions came to visit the people of Lenapehoking in New Jersey on occasion.
an enormous wilderness was apparently occupied by relatively few people. Here and there, on terraces overlooking large streams, along marshlands, and on selected coastal sites, evidence of occupation would have been observable in clearings where people inhabited bark or thatch huts and used fireplaces, dugout canoes, grooved axes, soapstone pots, and ceramic vessels. link to illustration p.153 (Fig. 5.1).
the people probably spoke an Algonquian language.
archaeologists have identified distinct cultures that existed during the Early and Middle Woodland period:
the Orient Culture (ca. 1200-600 B.C.) - extended from the Potomac River into New England and from the Susquehanna River to the Atlantic Ocean.
characterized by slender Orient
ÒfishtailÓ points. link to
illustration p. 154 (Fig. 5.2, 5.3).
dugout canoes were essential for travel on rivers.
food was cooked in soapstone (steatite) or amphibole talc and in ceramic pots.
fishing was a major activity and fish was a large part of the diet. Fish were caught with woven nets attached to netsinker stones. Some fish were eaten raw, and others were roasted on spits.
excess fish were cleaned, split, dried, or smoked for storage or transport. Cobble filled drying platforms have been found by archaeologists. link to illustration p. 156 (Fig. 5.7, 5.8)
the Meadowood Culture (ca. 1250-500 B.C.) Ð appeared at about the same time as the Orient Culture and may have originated in central or northwestern New York State, extending into the Great Lakes region and Lower Canada, and eastward into the Lower Delaware, Wallkill, and Hudson River valleys and Long Island.
characterized by hunting camps, nut-harvesting camps in spring and summer.
small bands with populations rarely exceeding 30 to 50 persons. Sites occupied for short terms.
fishing was fundamental to the economy, supplemented by game and gathered vegetal foods. seeds of goosefoot, and smartweed found in abundance near riverbanks and on floodplains were found in some graves by archaeologists.
the culture of the Meadowood
people appears to have been centered around a mortuary cult with cremation as
its primary mode of disposal. The
bodies of the deceased were apparently kept in charnel houses until all or most
of the flesh had decayed, after which the remains were burned on a pyre. Archaeologists have found tools and
ornaments along with burned foods such as dog, deer, bird, fish, and plants,
buried in some graves, probably for use in the afterlife.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
cooking was done in collarless
pottery vessels (called Vinette I pots by archaeologists) characterized by
cord-marked exterior surfaces and interiors that were smoothed. link to illustration p. 161
(Figure 5.12)
fires were started with flint strike-a-lights and pyrite. These fire-making kits were deemed to be so necessary that they were consistently included among grave goods for use in the afterlife.
Meadowood culture is identified mostly by the carefully-fashioned projectile points, knives or mortuary ÒcacheÓ blades, scrapers and drills. link to illustrations p. 162 (Figure 5.13, 5.14, 5.16)
cache blades have been found
buried in caches of four to 1500 pieces.
The purpose of Meadowwwd cache blades is not known. Similar to projectile points, they are
extremely thin and very skillfully made by a well controlled pressure-flaking
technique that would have required only side-notches to convert them into
conventional spearpoints or knives.
One explanation for the many cache blades is that they were buried by
the Meadowood people with the intention of retrieving them as needed, possibly
for trading purposes or for grave offerings. link to illustration p. 188 (Figure 5.59)
The Adena-Middlesex Mortuary Culture- archaeologists have identified a distinct mortuary complex in New Jersey and through the northeastern United States, and southeastern Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces of Canada. These sites, and those with similar components identified with the Delmarva Adena complex in Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia to the south date to between ca. 1000-100 B.C.
they share a number of cultural traits presumably derived from, or influenced by, the Adena people of the Ohio River Valley. But while the Adena people of the Midwest erected large burial and effigy mounds, including, for example, the Great Serpent Mound in Ohio, there is absolutely no evidence of mound-building throughout most of the Middle Atlantic and Northeast.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
artifacts found on all or most of
the Adena, Delmarva Adena, and Middlesex sites included certain types of
lobate, stemmed, and side-notched projectile points, some of unusually large
size, delicate workmanship, and exotic stone. Link to illustrations p 169 (Figure 5.23- 5.28).
characterized by new ceramic
types that were more complex and sophisticated than had been seen
previously. In northern areas,
these changes in pottery styles led directly to later cultures such as the
Pahquarra or Owasco series of early Late Woodland times, and ultimately into
the incised collar styles of pottery of the Minisink phase. The ornamentation became increasingly
complex with styles of decoration that lasted to Historic times. link to illustration
p291 7.48
a distinct lack of evidence for burial or mortuary practices with little evidence of mortuary ceremonialism.
very little evidence has been found relating to the shelters used by cultures of the period. In good weather, the people might have slept under the stars. In case of rain, they might have set up a lean-to or lodge made of brush and skin. Except for charcoal from cooking fires, such overnight campsites left few if any clues for archaeologists. Rockshelters and caves offered protection in highland areas. In the absence of natural shelters, lodges had to be constructed from saplings covered with thatch, slabs of bark, woven mats, or skins.
in winter, it was advantageous to split into smaller groups or family units and scatter across the landscape to survive. Animals that could be caught and killed in the winter included fat, hibernating bears rousted our of the theirs dens, deer, elk, rabbits, and other small mammals, as well as such nonmigratory birds as turkeys, grouse, and passenger pigeons.
food gathering activities included trapping, fishing through the ice, and, if possible, collecting shellfish from unfrozen river bottoms and seashores. Nuts, seeds, dried fish, and other provisions helped Indians through the dreaded winter and early spring months. Life in winter could be very harsh and was often a time of starvation. Each year many Indians died form lack of food, chronic illness, and exposure.
with the spring thaw, life began to return to the land. Geese, ducks, and other migrating birds returned to the area. Spawning fish appeared in astonishing numbers by the end of March or early April when water temperatures warmed.
the Fox Creek Culture Ð artifacts attributable to this culture have been found throughout the Middle Atlantic states and in parts of New England. Found in the Trenton area in New Jersey.
fish appears to have been a staple of the Fox Creek people. Remains of this culture found mainly on river and coastal sites form the Chesapeake Bay, north into the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Hudson River drainages.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
characterized by Fox Creek
stemmed and Fox Creek Lanceolate points that served as spearpoints or knives
depending on how they were hafted.
Link to illustration p 185 (Figure 5.52)
Fox Creek peoples probably threw spears without the use of the atlatl. Bolas were used in hunting and fowling.
fabric-impressed pottery and Petalas blades were common. Ornaments may have been made from perishable wood, bone, and antler. Celts, or ungrooved axes were used for chopping; and pitted stones, hammerstones, anvilstones, and pestles are among the domestic food-processing tools.
petalas blades were used for
butchering and have been found by archaeologists in direct association with
sturgeon remains on certain Hudson River sties. Large, broad blades were usually made from local argillite
and chert, and sometimes of jasper, and are occasionally found in buried
deposits or caches. Link to
illustration pl 186 (Figure 5.53 Ð 5.56, 5.57, 5.58).
It is conjectured that the
Indians, in anticipation of fish spawning runs, realized the need for many
fish-scaling and butchering knives, and so knapped hundreds of handy Petalas
blades during a previous yearÕs trip to argillite and chert quarries, then
buried these tools in caches near fish-processing sites so that they would be
available when needed. In the
spring, when fish ascended the river, and possibly in fall when they reversed
directions into the warmer waters of the ocean, alewives, river herring, shad,
and sturgeon, as well as eels, were caught in large quantities. At such times, Petalas blades were
probably dug out of their caches and distributed so that every worker might
have one in hand on one or two extras for the purpose of gutting, scaling, and
splitting ht fish preparatory to drying them. Link to illustration 189 (Figure 5.61)
The Kipp Island and Webb Phase Cultures Ð the Kipp island culture (ca. A.D. 300-850) was first identified in central New York State, and the Webb Phase (A.D. 410-1180) at the Island Field site in Delaware.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
both the Kipp Island and
Webb Phase cultures include traits such as JackÕs Reef Corner-Notched, JackÕs
Reef Pentagonal, and triangular projectile points, platform pipes, several
styles of stone pendants, bone combs, antler harpoons, beaver-tooth incising
tools, and sharksÕ tooth beads.
The lithic artifacts have been found on numerous sites in the Delaware
Valley, but bone and antler artifacts have survived only rarely, as on Minisink
Island, Staten Island, the Abbott Farm site, and the Island Field site. Link
to illustration p 193 (Figure 5.64 and 5.65, 5.66, 5.67, 5.68)
by the end of the Middle Woodland period, horticulture, or garden farming, had finally come to the attention of the people in the Delaware Valley. Gardening provided a measure of control over nature. Crops deliberately planted and nurture could yield a bountiful harvest, some of which could be stored for use in the winter. Horticulture compelled people to settle down for at least part of the year, and it demanded a measure of cooperation from those who widhed to benefit from the harves. Forests had to be cleared, the earth had to be hoed, and plants had to be tended and watered before the yield could be harvested. Gardening contributed to settled communities and to the emergence of the Lenape people.
Late Woodland Period (ca. 1000 Ð 400 Years Ago)
Seven centuries, more or less,
from Middle Woodland times to the coming of European explorers and settlers,
comprise the Late Woodland period.
During this time, Lenapehoking was inhabited by people that we can
confidently identify as Lenape Indians, a people who likely developed from
predecessors already there in Early and Middle Woodland times. The presence of these ancestral Lenape
is fairly certain, as there is no discontinuity in the archaeological record to
suggest an invasion or any displacement of former residents.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS:
In Late Woodland times the coastal
plains, ridges and valleys, and mountains were largely covered by dense
forests. Mixed forests of scrub
oak and pine characterized large areas of the Coastal Plains, and oak-chestnut
forests blanketed the northern sectors.
The edible American chestnut (Castanea dentate) was on of the most
common trees at that time. Unlike
oaks, which drop plentiful nuts one year and few the next, the chestnut
produces bumper crops of nutritious nuts almost every year. Indians consumed these nuts, which also
provided mast foods for the wild turkeys, deer, elk, bear, and squirrels that
the Indians also ate. Fig. 6.2 p.209
Forests were a major source of building materials, particularly saplings and bark for the construction of houses and canoes, and other needs.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES:
The Late Woodland period was a
time of innovation and change. It
is distinguished from earlier archaeological periods by the introduction or
possibly expansion of horticulture, or garden farming, which provided new foods
including maize (corn), beans, and squash that supplemented the nutrients obtained
by hunting, fishing, and gathering.
Despite this apparent benefit, it appears that horticulture was not
universally practiced, particularly on the Coastal Plain. Fig 7.31 p.279 Fig 7.34 p.281
Ceramic cooking vessels, although known from earlier times, were in this period being made in new shapes, and with distinctive decorative designs Ð a boon for archaeologists, since pottery is relatively abundant, enduring, and sensitive indicator of time and change.
Corn or maize was prepared for
eating in various ways.
Freshly-picked ears of corn were eaten green, directly from the cob,
boiled in water, or roasted in hot ashes.
Corn was cooked together with beans to make succotash, and with other
vegetables, meat, or fish. Dried
corn, pulverized in a mortar by means of a stone or wooden pestle or ground on
a milling with a hand-held muller was sifted through a fine mesh basket to
separate the flour used for making bread form the coarser meal that was made
into gruel or sapan (cornmeal mush).
Fig 7.38, p.285 7.40 p. 286
By Late Woodland times Indians along the entire Atlantic coast had replaced spears and lances as hunting equipment and were using bows and arrows instead.
The language spoken by the native peoples of Lenapehoking is classified by linguists as ÒDelaware.Ó This was itself part of a larger Algonquian language stock, or family of languages that extended from eastern Canada to the Carolinas. Not all people of Lenapehoking spoke this language in the same manner. Those who resided in the northern parts us a Munsee or M-dialect; those in the more central and southern areas spoke a Unami or U-dialect. From the archaeological and ethnohistorical perspective there can be no doubt that these people were socially and politically distinct as well. Despite the cultural-linguistic dissimilarties, however, the peoples of Lanapehoking acknowledged a common bond, and sensed a relationship. But like kin, individual bands were not always friendly and cooperative.
The Lenape lived in bark lodges or
wigwams constructed on farmsteads or hamlets located on fertile bottom land or
along the shores of revers, lakes, and bays, with the hinterland divided into
individual land units for hunting, fishing, and gathering. Fig 6.14, 6.15 p.220, 221 6.17, 6.18, 6.19
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:
The Indians had no saws and used only stone axes, which in
Late Woodland times consisted of sharpened celts, or ungrooved axe heads
inserted into stout wooden handles. Fig 6.3 p.211
Projectile points or arrowheads, were generally triangular in shape. Fig 7.2, 7.3 p.258
The arrowshafts to which the
triangular points were attached were carefully fashioned from fine-grained
wooden rods or canes. These shafts
were skillfully straightened by soaking the wood, heating it over a fire, and
bending and reshaping it appropriately.
Once straight, the shaft was shaved to a uniform diameter. The shaft was then ÒsandedÓ and
received its final form and smooth finish by being drawn back and forth in a
shaft smoother. Fig 7.10 p.261
Nets made of plant fibers were frequently used for fishing. Stone netsinkers are among the most frequently found artifacts associated with fishing. These are especially abundant on the floodplain sites in the upper Delaware River Valley. Most netsinkers were easily made form flat river pebbles notched on opposite sides. They were also made from thin, flat, carefully trimmed and notched rectangular stone slabs. Fig. 7.17, 7.18 p.268, 269 7.21 p.271
Canoes were essential for fishing
and travel. The dugout canoe was
the most common type, but bark canoes seem to have been made as well. Dugout canoes were fashioned out of
pine, oak, sycamore, and chestnut trees, but the best dugout canoes were made
by hollowing out the trunk of the yellow poplar or tulip tree. Fig. 7.22 p. 272
Canoes, fishweirs, houses, and
other constructions made of wood required the use of heavy woodworking tool,
notably the celt. Fig 7.24 p.274
Hunting and fishing tools were
also made of bone Fig 6.4 p. 214
Every woman and girl knew how to
make pottery vessels, though some were more skilled than others. Clean, tacky clay was the essential
ingredient, and this could usually be obtained from a lake bed, riverbank, or
lacustrine deposit. Fig.
7.65 7.68 p.302, 304
Pottery vessels and potsherds are
among the most useful and time-sensitive diagnostic artifacts found on late
prehistoric archaeological sites.
Changes in the shape and design of ceramic vessels have enabled
archaeologists to establish chronologies and determine culture contacts,
directions of influence, migration pattern, and other significant data. Pottery is durable, and even when
shattered the potsherds survive: whereas wood, bark, basket, and leather
containers decay. Given the
decorative motifs on most ceramic vessels, we can only imagine how Indian women
must have adorned their baskets, bark container, and leather wares, and how the
makers of wooden spoons, ladles, and dishes may have ornamented these
objects. Fig. 7.60, 7.61, 7.66